Primordial Black Hole Formation in Rastall Gravity: Shifted Collapse Threshold and Exponential Abundance Sensitivity

Primordial black holes formed in the early universe are compelling candidates for dark matter. We investigate their production in Rastall gravity, a modification of general relativity that introduces a non-minimal coupling between matter and geometry through the non-conservation of the energy-momentum tensor. Analyzing cosmological perturbations during radiation domination, we demonstrate that the Rastall parameter fundamentally alters the collapse dynamics, modifying the growth of density fluctuations, the critical threshold for black hole formation, and the fluctuation amplitude at horizon crossing if we consider the nearly conformal plasma. Current cosmological constraints from Big Bang Nucleosynthesis, the cosmic microwave background, and large-scale structure restrict the Rastall parameter to small values, yet within this allowed range PBH production can be altered by orders of magnitude compared to general relativity. Our results establish primordial black holes as novel probes of modified gravity.